Rehabilitation The Key In Changing Offender Behaviour Criminology Essay

Rehabilitation The Key In Changing Offender Behaviour Criminology Essay Behaviour can be explained through biological, learning or cognitive theories. This essay briefly analyses each of them in order to come to an agreement whether prison-based rehabilitation programmes should be abolished in times of financial cutbacks. Research evidence indicates that although much of our behaviour has biological roots as suggested by twin and adoption studies, it does not necessarily mean behaviour cannot be changed. Applications of cognitive and learning theories have proven that behaviour can be changed for the better. Although only certain types of rehab programs are effective in changing criminal behaviour, it nevertheless implies that behaviour is more nurture than nature. Rehabilitation: The Key in Changing Offender Behaviour In recent decades, incarceration rates (ABS) have displayed an upward trend across Australia. This, along with an increasing rate of recidivism(ABS) has contributed to a growing amount of criticism on the effectiveness of prison based rehabilitation programmes. According to Vennard, Sugg and Hedderman (1997) prison based programmes designed to rehabilitate offenders have been criticised on two main grounds. Firstly, that they over simplify the roots of offending behaviour by not considering other determinants of crime and secondly, that they are ineffective at changing criminal behaviour. This nothing works (Martinson, 1974) attitude has changed in recent years to a cautious optimism, supported by growing research that some types of intervention can be effective at reducing re-offending. It is therefore paramount that some, if not most rehabilitation programs continue to operate despite financial cutbacks. The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs depends on how criminal behaviour is acquired. Is it the result of an individuals genetic makeup that makes them a criminal or is it the environment in which they are raised that governs their behaviour? From the biological theories of behaviour to the behaviourist perspective on learning, there is one general theme of how genetic and environmental variables interact (Burton, 2009). Biological accounts of behaviour Family studies (Joseph, 2001; Raine, 2003; Schmitz, 2003) concluded that genetics can cause a tendency for criminal behaviour but they also found that an individuals personality could be, and often is, modified by the environment. Twin studies done by comparing identical twins or fraternal twins, is a type of genetic study that confirms this. Tuvblad, Eley and Lichtenstein (2005) examined 1226 pairs of twins for signs of heritability in anti-social behaviour (ASB) and found that although ASB in females were explained by genetic influences, males showed no significant mediation between aggressive behaviour and heritability. Furthermore, they found significant shared environmental effects in males. This suggests that the presence of ASB, a major factor in criminal behaviour (Joesph, 2001;Morley Hall, 2003) can be altered through environmental influences and therefore changeable through rehabilitation programs. On the other hand, adoption studies suggest that behaviour is more nature than nurture. In a review of adoption studies, Joseph (2001) found that most adoption studies concluded that adopted-away children who were born to parents with a criminal background were more likely to engage in criminal activity than adopted children whose parents had no criminal background. However Joseph (2001) also established that the majority of adoption studies found no significant role of genetics in violent crime. This suggests that there are some environmental influences on behaviour Besides heritability, certain biological chemicals are also known to influence behaviour. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an enzyme that has been shown to be related to ASB.A study by Elliot (2000) found that low MAO activity results in a lack of control which can lead to impulsivity and aggression, and by further association, ASB. Aggressiveness and impulsivity can also be increased by the neuro-chemical serotonin. As Lowenstein (2003) states, studies point to serotonin as one of the most important central neuro-transmitters underlying the modulation of impulsive aggression. Since chemical levels can be changed through diet, by incorporating a special diet in a rehabilitation program, it can improve the chances of successfully rehabilitating an offender. Although there is a lack of recent research evidence into this possibility, several past studies (Schauss 1981;) Schoenthaler, 1983 ) suggest that it is possible to manipulate behaviour through diet. Behaviour through learning The notion that criminal behaviour is a learned behaviour has been around for a long time. Sutherland (1947) put forth the theory of differential association which postulates that criminal behaviour is learned in association with those who have criminal attitudes and values. An individual learns favourable or unfavorable definitions of the legal code and he or she learns criminal behaviour if they accumulate an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violations of law (Sutherland 1947). This theory suggests that behaviour can be changed. According to the theory, individuals become criminals principally because they have been isolated from groups whose behaviour are law-abiding or because of some circumstances have made them associate themselves with criminals frequently. Therefore, if criminals are to be changed, they must become members of anti-criminal groups or their present pro-criminal group relations must be changed (Cressy, 1955). Cressey (1963) did a follow-up experiment on drug addicts by applying his principles formulated in his 1955 article on the differential association theory on a drug rehabilitation program. Sixty-six percent of the drug addicts who stayed on the program for at least three months and 86% of those who remained on the program for at least seven months did not revert back to drug use. The differential association theory is not perfect however. Burgess and Akers (1969) criticised Sutherlands theory due to its lack of attention on individualism and failure to take into account of personality traits. Using Skinners principles of operant conditioning, they further developed Sutherlands differential association theory to address these issues. They called their revision, the differential association-reinforcement theory. Burgess and Akers(1969) argue that criminal behaviour can be explained as a function of the reinforcement or punishment a person receives from the environment. In other words, behaviour that produces a reward will tend to be performed more frequently in the future, while behaviour that is followed by punishment will tend to decrease in frequency. Differential reinforcement occurs when under certain environmental conditions, one behaviour leads to greater or more frequent rewards than does another alternative behaviour. The behaviour that receives greate r reinforcement- e.g criminal behaviour-becomes dominant over the alternative behaviour, such as law-abiding behaviour. Consequently, through this process of differential reinforcement, certain environmental conditions can increase the probability of criminal acts by individuals. A study on the effects of imprisonment(punishment) and probation (reinforcement) on juvenile offenders demonstrated the effectiveness of applying the differential reinforcement theory in rehabilitation. Tsytsarev , Manger and Lodrini (2000) found that the incarcerated group had a higher likelihood of re-offending whilst the probation group had a lower likelihood of re-offending. Cognitive approach Among the range of offender programmes designed to reintegrate offenders into society, those which are increasingly favoured are those that seek to address an offenders way of thinking, reasoning and associated behaviour, otherwise known as cognitive-behavioural techniques (Vennard et al, 1997). Cognitive-behavioural techniques assume that offenders are shaped by their environment and have failed to learn certain ways of behaving (McGuire, 1995;Vannard et al, 1997). This does not mean criminal behaviour is solely attributed to individual factors. McGuire (1995) explains that it also takes into account the social conditions which affect individual development and is not in conflict with other explanations of criminal behaviour, such as the theory of differential association. Rehabilitation programmes based on this approach tend to teach offenders to confront their crime, understand why it happened and develop ways of controlling their behaviour. The success rates of these rehabilitation programs have been well documented. Feindler and Ecton (1986) (as cited in Vennard et al, 1997) developed a programme for young offenders which successfully taught them how to control anger.(example) while McDougall et al. (1987) reported significant anger reductions among inmates in young offenders institutions who had undergone an anger management programme combining cognitive procedures, specifically self-instruction and self- statements to use in situations of anger. More recently, Lipsey (2009) examined the effectiveness of various intervention programs, including rehabilitation. Of the 548 interventions analysed, he concluded that punishment or deterrence-based interventions such as boot camps actually increased recidivism. In contrast, programmes that were multi-model and had a more behavioural or skills-oriented had the most impact in reducing recidivism. In a different research review, Landenberger and Lipsey(2005) showed that progra ms based on cognitive behavioural techniques are effective with juvenile and adult criminal offenders in various criminal justice settings, including prison, residential, and parole. They found that it was even effective with high-risk behaviour such as rape. Conclusion With the current focus on punishing criminals through longer prison terms and harsher fines, rehabilitation must not be neglected as the vast amount of research literature indicates that behaviour can be changed. The financial gains from turning a criminal into a law-abiding, productive citizen far outweigh the temporary savings from abolishing rehabilitation programs. Equally important is that we continue to provide more resources to rehabilitation programs in order to better understand, and change something that is constantly evolving human behaviour. Kelvin Mui

Representations of Women in Ike Oguine A Squatters Tale :: Squatters Tale Essays

Representations of Women in A Squatter’s Tale Women can be perceived or looked at in many ways. They are depicted not only as mothers, but also as friends, companions, and even prostitutes. Today’s society has a variety of images of what they feel women should be and what they actually are. Likewise in Ike Oguine’s A Squatter’s Tale, women are portrayed through various roles such as mothers, girl friends or companions, and prostitutes to reflect the society. First, mothers are backbones of the family. When hard times are experienced, they are the ones who keep the family together. Women provide more than financial support to the family. They are the sense of hope and encouragement to keep the household running smoothly. In A Squatter’s Tale, Obi’s mother is the one who, even in hard times, keeps holding on trying to get through the difficulties. The love she has for her family is what gives her the strength to give all she can to her family. When Obi’s family move from their Yaba house to a three-bedroom flat in the outer reaches of Isolo, as a result of the sudden retirement of Obi’s father, their struggles for survival increase. Obi’s mother would drive everyday from Isolo to her shop in Yaba. The drive she endures everyday is very long and tiring. Obi knows his mother is enduring a lot for the family as Oguine establishes this sense of hardship by stating in Obi’s words, From our new home my mother had to do a hellish drive to her shop in Yaba every morning (leaving behind two disabled men – my father and me – brooding in the living room all day in front of the shiny black Sony Trinitron 21† TV I bought when I was treasury manager in BTF) and another hellish drive back every evening through the most chaotic traffic in the whole of Lagos. (113-114) The struggle of the drive alone is hard for Obi’s mother. When her car breaks down after ten years, the battle against hardships is about to be lost, because, in addition to working extremely hard, she is being put through hell. Obi realizes what the struggle is doing to his mother the day she comes home after her car has broken down.

My Mother Never Worked

Chris Godkin D. Maggard English 1113, 323 19, September 2012 My Mother Never Worked In the story â€Å"My Mother Never Worked,† Bonnie Smith-Yackel recalls the time she contacted the Social Security service about her mother’s death benefits. At that time, Bonnie was put on hold while the Social Security worker searched through the files for the record of Martha Jerabek Smith. During the time she was waiting, Bonnie began to reminisce about the life of her deceased mother. As time goes by, the worker eventually returns to the phone.The worker explains to Bonnie that she is not able to receive the death benefits of her mother due to the fact she never had recordable job. During the duration of the phone call with the Social Security worker, Bonnie seemed quite distraught in she was very slow to answer the questions of the worker. She took short pauses throughout her sentences before completing them. She was asked a few questions about her mother in relation to her name, a ge, Social Security number and if she was on Social Security. Bonnie told the worker that her mother was seventy eight and was on Social Security but she did not know the number.The worker then placed Smith-Yackel on hold while she searched for Martha Jerabek Smith’s record. Bonnie then used that time to search through her mind and recollect the memory of her mother. Her mother graduated high school in 1913, as did her father the same year. Martha loved Ben F. Smith, Bonnie’s father, but was afraid of marriage. The thought of planning her wedding day, having children and just being a married woman made her nervous and sick. As the years went by, she overcame her worries and married her love, Ben F. Smith, and began farming.In January, 1922 Martha gave birth to her first daughter. Her second child, a boy, was born in March 1923. During this time, they were renting farms and working on other people’s farms to earn what little income they could. Martha learned to d o a variety of tasks. Such as, tend to chickens and livestock, plant and harvest crops, and can fruits and vegetables. In September 1925, and again in June 1927, Martha gave birth to her third and fourth child- both daughters. In 1930, they reclaimed a forty-acre field. Her mother worked the fields day after day.Harvesting and planting, tending to livestock, anything that needed to be done, she was able to do. A year later, a drought hit and dried up the soil, starving and dehydrating the crops. Only half of the crops were harvested that year. In February 1934, their fifth child, a daughter, was born. During the winters, Martha sewed coats and jackets, and remade clothes so they would fit the growing children. In 1937 she gave birth to her fifth daughter. In 1939, she bared her second son. In 1941, her third son and eighth child were born.By then, she had thirty head of cattle which she milked daily. Shortly after, the Rural Electricity Administration and indoor plumbing had arrived . In 1959 her youngest child graduated. Though she was aging, Martha still worked every day out in the fields, making sure that everything was in order. Ten years later Martha and Ben were heading into town for sugar when they crashed into a ditch. Martha was severely injured and paralyzed from the waist down. In 1970 Ben F. Smith passed away. Martha had done her best to regain self-control and order in life.It was over bearing for her to lose her husband and have to deal with the burden of paralysis. She attended a rehabilitation institute where she learned to be independent and self-sufficient in a wheel chair. Though she was in a wheel chair, she still worked every day. She canned fruit and vegetables, sewed coats and even made a quilt. A voice quickly caught Bonnie’s attention. It was the Social Security worker, she had found the file. She stated that Bonnie’s mother had been receiving a widow’s pension. Bonnie then agreed with the worker.Then she stated tha t her mother is not entitled the Social Security service’s death benefit. Confused, Bonnie asked why her mother was not entitled. The worker said, â€Å"Well, you see – your mother never worked. † The way the story ends is superb. It makes one think back to all the work that Martha did on the farm and in the home. In the eyes of the knowing, we see that she had in fact been working herself to the bone on a farm for most her life. In the eyes of the government, or the blind more or less, Martha had no official work history. Therefore she was unable to receive any benefits.

Illegal Immigrants Persuasive Essay - 1217 Words

Illegal Immigrants Taking Advantage of the United States Should illegal immigrants be allowed to get in for free? Should they be allowed to enter while others spend years following the rules in order to gain their legal entry? In today’s society, the people of the United States are being taken advantage by the illegal immigrants. There are many examples in the news today demonstrating illegal immigrants shouldn’t be allowed to cross the border like the economic deficit, crime or the protection of our country. Illegal immigrants should not be allowed to come into the U.S. illegally and it would be completely unfair to the immigrants who put in all of the hard work. Firstly, throughout the last twenty years, it has been commonly reported†¦show more content†¦The U.S. is losing jobs for the legal citizens and the native-born citizens which are taken by illegal citizens. This is one of the reasons it is unfair and why the illegal immigrants shouldn’t be allowed into the country illegally. While some illegal immigrants come and merely want to establish a new life here in the US, not all illegal immigrants plan on being otherwise law-abiding citizens. One example of crime is usage of illegal Social Security cards previously mentioned.. Although what this guy did was for his family was noble, he still is committing a crime which can be show in this next quote, â€Å"‘I just made up a Social Security number. I’ve been able to get my cable and utilities [and an apartment] with the made-up number,’Josà © said.†( Brown 2016). Josà © also talked about how people would forge fake Social Security cards and fake green cards using help with undocumented works and then sells them for money at the local shopping malls. In this quote by Attorney General Jeff Sessions, â€Å"The Department of Justice is committed to supporting our law enforcement at every level, and that’s why we’re asking ‘sanctuary’ jurisdictions to stop mak ing their jobs harder. 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