Stallings Culture of the Savannah River Valley Assignment

Stallings Culture of the Savannah River Valley - Assignment Example The names island is situated eight miles from Georgia. Since the 1850s, archeologists have been reviewing the site and eventually proved that the site is one of the utmost significant locations in the history of United States (Sassaman 79-104). Over the past 140 years, more than 12 excavations have been conducted on the island by archeologists and looters. The existence of intensive prehistoric habitation, shell mound, and archeological deposits makes Stallings culture as important. The author, Kenneth E. Sassaman has tried to focus on the activity of the people of the Shoals. The first argument of the author is to present a story about the fall and rise of the Stallings culture. The second argument is to discuss the story of archeology which helps to enlighten the history of Stallings. The author wants to highlight the Stallings culture and bring it back to life with archeological interpretations and excavations. The Stallings culture has gained attention for many decades by archeological. This is mainly due to its setting within a place and time of many archeological deposits such as soapstone artifacts and fiber-tempered pottery. The author vividly described the reason behind the importance and flourish of Stallings culture for over 300 years. The author initiates with the argument of the population of the South-east coast and America. Kenneth explains the history of the Late Archaic culture of the Savannah River valley with a chart. The chart is based on the radiocarbon age. The Stallings fiber-tempered pottery and its technologies are introduced by the author to provide evidence on the importance of Stallings culture. Kenneth also focuses on defining the geographical, typological and chronological parameters ceramics as an evidence to focus on the Stallings culture. Several controversial theories of the people of Stallings have been offered by Kenneth.

Pirates of the Caribbean Essay Example for Free

Pirates of the Caribbean Essay There dynamic personalities of the many characters in Pirates of the Caribbean are a huge part of what made the movie so successful. Among those characters, there are some who contribute more to the plot by their actions and some who affect the other characters by their mere presence. Captain Barbosa and the Commodore have some obvious differences that divide them in the movie, but their similarities are much more important. As a pair of comic alazons, Barbosa and the Commodore play an important role in providing basis for comparison against Captain Jack Sparrow and further complicate the love story in the movie. Captain Barbosa is interesting character in that his actions are often represented in an amateur light. It is important remember the introduction of Barbosa if one is to understand his character. It is important to note that he is originally Jack Sparrow’s first mate, which immediately relegates Barbosa to a subordinate and thus, amateur position. He never really grows out of that and through the rest of the movie and there is never much indication that he is capable, either. One such example where this is evident occurs when Barbosa makes the mistake of thinking that Elizabeth is the daughter of Bootstrap Bill Turner. By attempting this important blood ritual using the wrong person, Barbosa shows just how much of an impostor he actually is. In addition to that, one of the primary characteristics of a comic alazon is their unique ability to get in the way of the primary love scene in the movie. In this case, Barbosa’s constant meddling with Elizabeth, Jack, and William spurns a host of different love-filled possibilities in the film. Like Captain Barbosa, the Commodore is an interesting character who has a big role in the film. His primary role as impostor comes from his relationship with Elizabeth. He sets out to marry her and the film allows him to get very close, but ultimately she settles on Will Turner as her true love. This sets up the Commodore as something of a joke from the very beginning. In addition, he can be seen as a comic alazon because of his failed methods in finding Elizabeth when she has been captured by Barbosa. It is interesting to note that the Commodore is completely against piracy, which is something of a strange idea considering how common it was during the movie’s time. It was almost as if he was on a mission to stop something that he had absolutely no ability to stop. The commodore is similar to Barbosa in many ways and the movie adeptly points this out. These two are similar in that they serve as a foil for Will Turner in his relationship with Elizabeth. In addition, both are seen as something of jokes, and they are not taken seriously by the other characters even though the one thing they want more than anything is to be taken seriously. In a way, Jack Sparrow just toys with both the Commodore and with Barbosa and though he is always in reach of them, he manages to make them look foolish and escape at the same time. This is the one reason why they are important to the plot. The basic characteristics of the two characters make them very different simply based upon the fact that Barbosa is a pirate who is hurting Elizabeth, while the Commodore is against piracy and loves Barbosa. Those things are purely superfluous to the story, though, as the more important theme has to be drawn both characters’ abilities to look foolish and completely inept at the same time. All in all, these characters are incredibly important to the story’s development. Though their differences are pronounced, their similarities are even more important. On both sides of the spectrum, they serve as something to laugh at and people for the main characters to constantly toy with for the entirety of the film.

Analysing The Junk Food Generation English Language Essay

Analysing The Junk Food Generation English Language Essay Adults and children nowadays eat fast food without knowing its effects on the body and general health, therefore we shall realize the nutritional value of what we eat in order to understand whether we need it or not. In that paper I will talk about junk food discussing its history, reasons of rapid spread all around the world, its harmful effects, and the possible solution for that problem. Introduction: Fast food (Junk food) refers to food that is easily and quickly prepared, however, it refers mainly to the food that is prepared from precooked or preheated ingredients then packed and sold in stores or restaurants. In 1951 the word Fast food was first introduced in the Merriam-Webster dictionary. Junk or fast foods taste good and are rich in calories but they are of a very low nutritional value, Fast foods are usually rich in sugar, rich in fats or rich in salt. There are many examples of junk food such as Pizza, French Fries, Burgers, hotdogs, fried food, candy, ice cream, and soda pop. Other kinds of junk food are just like the imitation juice that you find nowadays in most of the markets, you may think it is healthy but the truth is that it has loads and loads of sugar, artificial flavors, and so little of the pure natural juice. Fast food has appeared in the world during Ancient Rome age, they sold wine and bread in the streets of the cities, also in the Far East noodles were prepared and sold while in the Middle East there were the flafel and the flatbread, Indians introduced dahi vada, vada pav, and panipuri. Although fast food is tasty and delicious, it has many disadvantages, people must nowadays be aware of those disadvantages, fast food has real damage on the human health, and the most important bad effects that the fast food may cause are obesity, high cholesterol level, cardiovascular disorders, and nutritional deficiencies. Actually fast food may not contain any nutritional benefits to the body because it usually contains harmful fats, carbohydrates, and cholesterol that dont provide the body with any useful energy. Consuming fast food is increasing in a very rapid way nowadays and that increase is cause mainly by 3 main reasons which are: Convenience: Since it is fast and we live our lives in a hurry nowadays, there is no time to prepare healthy and well prepared food. Ads: Advertisement is the Fast Food marketers weapon; they use anything possible to advertise including TV commercials, Radio stations, vending machines and internet pop-ups. Lack of discipline: and that is another important reason, and may be the most important one but I will talk about it in details later. Fast food is a real problem that has many horrible and sometimes fatal effects on people especially youth and children, in that paper I will discuss in details the effects of junk food on the individual, the society and the world. And I will also talk about the possible solutions for that problem. Body: The Junk food planet: People around the world are of different races, languages, borders, and religions; however, they may have the same problems, views, and tastes. Media devices have helped in uniting those things; it made the world as if it is just one small village. Our ancestors used to respect their planet, they took care of their health, and on the other hand we looked for Fast food. Nowadays everyone eats fast food, especially the new generation that loves and eats only the fast food. A lot of parents all around the world may give their kids sugary fast food in order to be hyperactive, and afterwards, their children complain and feel sick, therefore they take their children to doctors who will prescribe some medications that will cure the symptom not the cause, despite of not being in need to those medications if they just changed their diet. Reasons of the increased consumption of junk food: There are many reasons beyond the increased consumption of fast food around the world, the most common reasons are: Convenience: You wake up early in the morning with very little or no energy, even if you slept for the regular eight hours, you will still feel tired, you find no time to make breakfast then you say to yourself that you will just get something on your way to work, you stop by any supermarket and buy some doughnuts and a soft drink (e.g. Soda), you believe that the sugar in those products will give you power and energy, you work for about eight hours and then you find yourself hungry again, you are so tired, you dont want to bother yourself by making lunch so you order junk food again. In general, nowadays we live a very fast life; you have no time to cook healthy food so you choose the easier way which is the junk food even if it was lower in its nutritional value. Advertisements: Marketers of the junk food use every possible way to advertise, they use TV, Radio, and internet. Television is known to have a very powerful effect on people; therefore marketers use advertisements that reach the mind of a lot of consumers, because advertisements wash away our fears and suspects and give us another beautiful image and that is just what the marketers want. Most of the advertisements aim for the children, and it was reported food ads that appear during childrens T.V. programs are 25%, in India they are approximately 50% while in Pakistan they are 75%. Since 1980 there was an obvious increase in the childrens advertisements, they were used not only to affect the children then but to increase the future fast food consumption also; they targeted children because they know the influence that children may have on their parents, and to create loyal future consumers. Fast food marketers would do anything and would pay huge amounts of money in advertising especially for the children including games, contests and toys; they use cartoon and comics to advertise. For example, Burger King was the first to give the children free toys with their meals, in 1999 it was reported that Burger King featured more than 50,000,000 toys. The Sales of Burger King in the USA were doubled that year. Marketer used everything; they used movie stars, sports famous players, and pop singers. Pepsi used Pink, Britney Spears and Beyonce Knowles, while McDonalds used Justin Timberlake in their latest campaign Im lovin it they offered him $6,000,000. In conclusion, children are very important customers in the market because of the great effect they have on their parents, in the past mothers were more powerful than the market power, but those days are gone nowadays, it was reported that most of parents nowadays were influenced by their children mainly in their marketing decisions especially when it is related to food, therefore marketers need only to persuade the children, and wait for them to convince their parents. Lack of discipline: Nowadays, the new generation has a very weak personality, they didnt suffer the fears of wars, they have everything easy and available, thus they have no inner strength, they dont understand the value of life or health, they may know the consequences of eating a lot of fast food, and nevertheless they buy it because of lacking of discipline. Parents also became very weak; they try to be more friendly with their children, so they respond to every single demand, they feed them according to their desire not what is healthier for them and for their bodies. Effects of Junk food on health: Junk food has many bad effects on health, they include: Effects on blood pressure: Fast food contains high amounts of Na++ (Sodium) that lead to high blood pressure, it was stated that the adults body require only 1200-1500 milligram of sodium every day, so when you realize that the normal table salt contains about forty per cent sodium and that a teaspoon of salt may contain about 2400 milligram of sodium, and that high amounts of sodium leads certainly to high blood pressure, you will realize what risks fast food may lead to. Cholesterol: Junk food that contains meat contains bad cholesterol that has dangerous effects on the human body and general health, the accumulation of cholesterol molecules in arteries will result in their thickening and clogging that will in return result in congestion of blood vessels and will obstruct the normal blood flow which will lead to disorders in the blood pressure, and if the artery affected was one of those that carry blood to the heart, it will may lead to a heart attack, and in complicated cases it may cause heart failure. Trans Fats: Trans fats are considered to be the worst type of fats, and it is present in Junk food with high amounts, trans fat is very harmful because it reduces the levels of good cholesterol in addition to increasing the levels of bad cholesterol. It was reported that fast food contains 45 per cent of trans fats more than normal and well prepared food. Effects on the cardiovascular system and vascular function: About 40 per cent of children and 37 per cent of adults depend mainly on junk food in their lives, they have higher levels of fats, saturated fats, energy, soda drinks, and sodium, and on the other hand lower intake of milk, vegetables, fruit and essential vitamins such as C and A. Fast food consumption was proved to have bad effects on the CVS (Cardio Vascular System) in general because fast food lead to gaining weight and insulin resistance, and on the long term fast food causes disorders in the endothelial functions and marked increase in the oxidative stress, and as a further complication, both oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction develop atherosclerosis, and this may end in cardiovascular failure and death. On the other hand well prepared meals such as the Mediterranean or the vegetarian food contain low unsaturated fats and higher content of vitamins therefore it may be considered a protective diet, for example when you take high doses of antioxidant vitamins (CE) they will prevent endothelial dysfunction. Obesity: It was stated by the Worldwatch Institute that the number of adults that have obesity nowadays are the same number of those who suffer from underweight. Children obesity has become epidemic in many countries, there are more than 17,000,000 children that are 5 years old suffer from obesity all around the world. Obesity causes many health complications, it causes both psychological and physical disorders, the prognosis is very poor with possible subsequent cardiovascular diseases, some kinds of cancer, and premature death. Other complications: Effects on energy: Fast food doesnt contain any or very low nutritional components, on the contrary, it is composed of harmful fats, cholesterol, and carbohydrates, therefore it doesnt provide your body with any energy, and body weakness. Low concentration: Fast food contains high levels of fat and oil that are difficult to be digested, so the body spends more amounts of enzymes and blood. That means that when you eat a lot of junk food, blood goes mainly you the intestine, therefore you may feel drowsy and lose concentration. Liver failure: Liver may get damaged due to the high amounts of salt, cholesterol, and fat that are present in most of the junk food. Diabetes Mellitus: Fast food may cause damage to pancreas and that may lead to insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Junk food and the children of Egypt: In Egypt mothers chose the easiest way to feed their children nowadays, they feed their own kids pizza and soda without knowing that this junk food is very harmful for them, it was reported by a physician at el Qasr Al-Aini hospital that about 7 kids were being treated from apnea in just 3 months, Apnea is a sleeping disorder that happens when fats block the pulmonary air paths, that means that those kids were choking by their own fat. Children of Egypt today drink soda more than milk, and it was reported that 10% of male teenagers from thirteen to eighteen years old drink about 7 cans of soda daily, while 10% of the females may drink about 5 daily, however, soda has horrible effects on the body where it causes bone weakness and osteoporosis. Recommendations: Ban junk food advertising for kids under twelve years old. (Sweden has done this already, so it is possible) Decrease the number of the fast food advertisements during the kids shows and programmes.(South Korea limited the Ads number to 10%) Health messages in kids shows and Ads Eat well prepared home-made food. Avoid junk food specially French fries Soda drinks Breakfast cereals Pizza White bread Donuts Chocolates and candies Decaffeinated coffee Ice cream Conclusion Junk food consumption has increased nowadays; both developing and developed countries suffer from this problem. The main reason for the increased consumption of fast food especially among our kids is the advertisements; however, we bear high responsibility also, because we let them eat what they want to eat with no restrictions even if it was harmful for their health and bodies. Fast food has many horrible effects on the human body such as weakness, loss of energy, loss of concentration, obesity, cardiovascular disorders, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, apnea, liver diseases, and high blood pressure Children in Egypt today depend on junk food as their main source of nutrition, and that must be prevented by the parents and shown in the children programmes if we want to get a healthy and a strong new generation.

Lyndon Johnsons Vietnam War Strategy

Lyndon Johnsons Vietnam War Strategy LYNDON JOHNSON’S PEACE INITIATIVES DURING THE VIETNAM WAR â€Å"What did the Johnson administration hope to achieve from diplomatic efforts to resolve the Vietnam War between 1965 and 1968 and with what success?† Introduction: Lyndon Johnson had become highly besieged in the pursuit of his Vietnam policy. Most historical arguments centre round his inept handling of the situation, in which he escalated the bombing offensives and then tempered them down making a mess of the peace moves, which were never done with any serious intent. The core of the historical criticism of the president is that he allowed himself to be blindly guided by inappropriate advice from Robert McNamara, and caused avoidable loss to American lives. Obsessed with the idea of keeping the armed forces subordinate to the presidency, the Johnson administration gave instructions that were out of sync with the happenings on the battlefield. This paper takes a look at these developments, while listing in some detail the peace moves he tried to make, and how they came a cropper. It finally looks at the reasons for their failures, and tries to point out who could be held responsible for the fracas. Limitations of this paper Since this paper is about a highly narrowed down topic, a background to the war and its developments is not made; this paper is limited to discussing its defined purview, and hence these details and the persons involved in the war are taken as given. Need for negotiations In order to understand with what objectives the president initiated negotiations, it is necessary to understand the situation that forced him to make these moves. With a series of ill-conceived actions, the president had crossed the Rubicon over Vietnam. Well into the middle of his term, it was a thorn in the flesh from which there seemed no reprieve for the beleaguered president, even as enormous pressure mounted at home to end the war. As aptly summed up, â€Å"Vietnam was a stalemate producing irreconcilable domestic divisions and a nightmare†¦from which Johnson could not awake.† (Dallek, 1998, p. 443) From the sunny days of his presidential campaigning of 1964, when less than a third of the population saw Vietnam as the most pressing problem the nation faced to a near doubling of this figure by the winter of 1965-66, the decline in support for the president’s policies on Vietnam was rapid. (Dallek, 2004, p. 251) His gauche at handling the press was also another factor for this situation, with the result that Vietnam soon became, in the perception of the American public, â€Å"President Johnson’s war†. (Liebovich, 1998, p. 45) Egged on by his Defense Secretary, Robert McNamara, Johnson had given the war efforts no respite; he was firmly convinced that all it needed were a few more bombings and a few successful fights to end the war. He could not have been more off the target; while the president’s men assessed that the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese regular armies could be subdued, the latter resorted to guerrilla tactics, from scattered and well-spread positions. The result was calamitous –by 1967, nearly half a million Americans had been sent to Vietnam, of whom the total casualties were in the region of 100,000, among whom no less than a seventh had lost their lives. (Liebovich, 1998, p. 44) Although the Government of South Vietnam, (GVN), whose fragile nature had for so long worried the US, had coalesced, with the Cao Ky coup by the beginning of 1966, the Johnson administration was in a bind about the policy it had to pursue, because astronomical sums were going down the drain. An April 1966 intra-governmental policy review had not seen any major reason for hope. The views of the presidential staff differed sharply from those of the men on the battlefield. Air strikes, on which the administration had pinned its highest hopes to achieve a breakthrough in the war, had come to a virtual naught, and were becoming a colossal waste of resources. One of the prime air strike programmes, ROLLING THUNDER, in the assessment the Institute of Defense Analysis made in the summer of 1966 had â€Å"had no measurable direct effect†. This was after the air strikes on the highly strategic and vulnerable areas of Petroleum, Oil and Lubricants, (POL) of the Democratic Republic of Nor th Vietnam (DRV). (Gelb Betts, 1979, pp. 146-148) At this point, the lack of effectiveness of the bombing strategy was also severely compounded by the exorbitant cost of carrying out these operations, which according to the CIA, cost almost ten times as much as the gains they brought. Having dropped as much as 643,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam, the cost of this on the US exchequer was $ 9.60 for every dollar’s worth of damage they inflicted on the DRV with only half the fighter bombers having the capability of surviving the year-long stint as pilots. (Wiest, 2003, p. 27) This terrible cost of escalation was also reflecting on the economy, taking it on an inflationary spiral, and threatening to neutralise its post-war gains. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 224) Gold prices were becoming very volatile, and all these contributed to completely undermine his ‘Great Society’ programme, on which he had come to power, (Reiter Stam, 2002, p. 121) and whose central theme was economic growth accompanied by poverty reduction. (Brown-Collier, 1998) In addition, another extremely important factor was threatening to bring the president on his knees –sustained antiwar movement, that had been inspired by the success of the Civil Rights movement. On the field, the highhandedness of the American forces had only succeeded in making the South support the North, and the infiltration of men and other supplies from the North. Through the Ho Chi Minh Trail, an estimated 90,000 men infiltrated to the South between 1965 and 1967. The Americanisation of South Vietnam was a total disaster. (Best, Hanhimà ¤ki, Maiolo Schulze, 2004, pp. 296) It was in the wake of these major drawbacks associated with continued bombing that the president was forced to mellow his position. By December 1966, the administration was convinced that since there was no way by which they could win the war, at least by election time, the only road that lay ahead was negotiation, (Dallek , 1998, p. 444) since this was the only way by which he could reverse these conditions. However, as the next section illustrates, he was no better at these negotiations, either. Johnson’s objectives, the negotiations and reasons for their failure These debacles were to reflect heavily on the president personally; by December 1966, the realisation had clearly and irrevocably dawned on the administration that unless the Americans ended the war at the earliest, it would reflect badly on the nation’s elections of 1968. At this stage, there was no alternative to negotiation, if the president was to have the slightest chance of re-election. From the high perch at which the president was seated, the only non-negotiable point at the discussions now became a separate state within South Vietnam (SVN), and a non- communist government for the president. (Dallek, 1998, p. 443) The first concrete steps towards negotiation were taken furtively, in 1966. At this point, the US was still very imperious, even though it was the one that initiated the negotiation. It made a blanket, unconditional demand –that the DRV stop infiltration into the south for bombing to stop. The first of these steps, known as bombing pauses, was hardly f ruitful. Taking off from here, the Johnson administration made a clearer move towards negotiation at the Manila Conference in the Declaration of Peace in 1966. The aim of the administration, which was to negotiate from a position of strength, offered the condition that the US would withdraw from South Vietnam within six months of Hanoi withdrawing the last of its troops from there. However, the DRV too was equally determined to bargain from a position of strength. The result was that the Johnson administration was seen to be keen on making peace, but within the administration, the same problem of the mismatch in thinking between the executive and the armed forces remained, (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 151) because the president, in whose mind the famous spat between Harry Truman and Gen. Douglas McArthur during the Korean War had been weighing heavily, decided that the best way to avoid a repeat of such a situation now was to keep the military under the firm control of the presidency. Unf ortunately, he was ham-handed in doing this, ending up in only isolating the military and creating a terrible disharmony between the two. (Jacobsen, 1996, p. 216) Accordingly, after the raids of December 13 and 14, the president ordered a Christmas ceasefire, and extended it up to January 1 as a goodwill gesture. The main objective for Johnson at this stage was securing the territorial integrity of the north and south of Vietnam, or all Vietnam, should its people choose reunification. His objective was also clearly aimed at silencing his critics at home, of whom there was no dearth. He sought to make these moves towards negotiations to silence the doves in the Congress, who kept insisting on negotiations, and the American public, who were becoming war-weary. (Dallek, 1998, pp. 443-448) The quick progress Eugene McCarthy made at the Hampshire primaries jolted the president about his sagging popularity. Drawing from McCarthy’s success, Robert Kennedy, too decided to challenge t he president. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 224) Internally, the most urgent need for him was to use the Vietnam War as a means to finish off his political rivals at home, chief among whom was Robert Kennedy. â€Å"For all his hope and brave talk about progress in the fighting, he still feared that the war would destroy him politically and open the way to a successful Kennedy bid for the presidency.† (Dallek, 1998, p. 448) There was also another factor –a change in US attitudes towards China, following the perception of Chinese expansion being the cornerstone of a Vietnam policy getting significantly reduced around the middle of 1966. (Parker, 1989, p. 142) Johnson hoped that he could hold his people together while using the armed forces and air strikes to force the Hanoi government to buckle just in time to give him a great fillip for the 1968 elections. Internationally, too, he was keen to be seen as a man who was interested in peace, accepting British and Russian offers to mediate, albeit reluctantly. He followed these up with another ceasefire for February 6-13. (Dallek, 1998, p. 446) Peace moves Operation Marigold was the name given to the Johnson administration’s attempt to make peace with Hanoi through indirect means, by which intermediaries in the form of emissaries of neutral countries were sent to develop channels of communication. It first started when the Polish member of the International Control Commission, Janusz Lewandowski apprised the Italian ambassador in Saigon, Giovanni d’ Orlandi and then the US ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., about Ho Chi Minh’s mind. The North Vietnamese leader was surprisingly amiable to US propositions. He suggested that if the Americans suspended bombing, he was more than willing to talk with them; an even greater surprise was that he was not going to insist that a socialist regime be established in the South, would not meddle in the affairs of the southern government, and that he was willing to consider a â€Å"reasonable calendar† for American withdrawal. Yet, in typical hubris, the John son administration threw away an easy way out of the conflict that had presented itself on a platter. The reason? Washington’s perceived untrustworthiness of the neutrality of communist Poland. Such a baffling, completely unfounded assumption destroyed a great chance for peace. A glaring example of the complete lack of coordination between the presidential and military staff, the basic reason for which bombing had not stopped earlier, showed itself up in December 1966. While the US ambassador in Poland, John Gronouski, was making preparations for a highly sensitive meeting with Polish officials, out of the blue, the US dropped bombs on sensitive targets in Hanoi heavily on December 2 and 3. This completely set the clock back on whatever little progress the Poles were making towards negotiating with the DRV, which centred round the issue of bombing. To this, the unrepentant administration offered the flimsiest of reasons for which the air strikes could not go ahead as planned on November 10 – bad weather! Further, even the planned attacks on December 13 and 14 went ahead as scheduled, giving the Marigold initiative a quick burial. Analysts are of the opinion that even after the bombings of December 2 and 3, there was hope for some salvage, but that the Johnson administration, which had in the first place created the truce move, killed it with its own hands. The simple reason for this was the total lack of sincerity on the part of the Johnson administration about going ahead with the bombing pauses. After briefly halting its bombings in mid-December, the US once again insisted that Hanoi reciprocate unequivocally. It read wrongly the situation on the ground in Hanoi in mid-late January 1967. With the DRV Foreign Minister, Ngoyen Duy Trinh’s tough words on January 28, demanding that the US stop its bombings immediately, the official obituary to the Marigold initiative came to be written. (Gelb Betts, 1979, pp. 152, 153) The fate of another such mission, Operation Sunflower, was no different; having been declared on February 6, 1967, the first reaction it drew was a strong letter from Ho Chi Minh, who warned the president that â€Å"the people of Viet Nam are determined not to surrender under the threats of bombing†. (Brigham, 1998, p. 143) This phase offered a six-day bombing pause in February 1967. Even while the Americans were again strict on the condition of reciprocity from North Vietnam, that of stopping infiltration, the administration gathered evidence that the North Vietnamese were taking advantage and were supplying arms to the South, forcing Washington to drop the plan. Another initiative was the San Antonio formula of September-December 1967. This, too, did not offer anything new or different; it reiterated American willingness to stop bombing and talk, if the North met its obligation of supplying arms to the South. North Vietnam, predictably, dismissed the offer. There were other initiatives for negotiation, too, between October 1966 and February 1968. Starting with moves initiated on the occasion of the funeral of Indian Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri, other steps, clearly half-hearted, were taken. These, in addition to neutral moves by eminent persons and the Glassboro summit, were given high sounding codenames such as Packers, Aspen, Ohio and Pennsylvania. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 163) Another prominent attempt of a peace mission was that of the Italian cleric, Giorgio La Pira in 1965. To his desperate pleas to end the war, all that the Johnson administration made was this indifferent reaction: State Department Executive Secretary Benjamin Read commented to presidential advisor, Walt Rostow thus: â€Å"[La Piras] telegram is another in a voluminous series of peace messages. In view of La Piras well-known position on Vietnam and other issues, it is recommended no reply be made.† (Miller, 1999, p. 143) The net result of these peace overtures was a near zero. All these gave rise to the Tet offensive. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 165) This was the event that signalled what a morass the US had got into. On the night of January 31, 1968, some troops owing their allegiance to the North Vietnamese leader attacked the American embassy of Saigon. Although the Americans put it down in no time, the event opened the floodgates to the seemingly never-ending nature of the war, showing up the complete lack of understanding of the war of the American soldiers, who went on the rampage, committing acts of unheard of savagery. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 223) Thus, while peace was being sought, the actions of the administration took the two sides anywhere but there. Conclusion While fixing the blame for the failures of the negotiations processes, students of history need to see the situation in the backdrop of the Cold War era. In retrospect, in the age of extremely fierce rivalry between the two superpowers played out through their allies, perhaps some of the blame can be mitigated from Johnson when he refused to trust the Polish, a staunch communist country. To be fair, he was only reciprocating an attitude of great mutual distrust of the Cold War protagonists. (Vandiver, 1997, p. 156) However, it needs to be said that on this particular, extremely important occasion, he was allowing the history of their relationship to cloud his judgement, when there appeared no motive on the part of the Polish other than to bring about a ceasefire during Operation Marigold. The bottom line of the historic criticisms against Johnson relates to his oscillation between escalation and negotiation, the total disconnect between the executive and the armed forces, and the catastrophic consequences these produced. Offensives continued even as Operation Marigold was on; later, two months into the Tet offensive, there were no concrete results, by when the president had made up his mind not to run for the 1968 elections. This decision made no great difference: the purpose for which the bombing operations took place, forcing North Vietnam to end its support for Vietcong, was not served. The bombings of ROLLING THUNDER were in no way deterring a regrouping of the North Vietnamese guerrilla fighters, who still possessed all the strength to defeat the South Vietnamese Army. (Jacobsen, 1996, p. 216) Taking an overall view of the escalation and the failure of the peace negotiations, it is difficult to point an accusatory finger at anyone other than the president. The decision to escalate the offensive was entirely his and McNamara’s. In dealing with the situation, the president had thoroughly misread the situation, and had kept insisting to the American public that the war was all but won. At no stage of the war did the president behave in a manner befitting his office. In what was to be the ultimate show of lack of conviction in the peace moves, the man he appointed to oversee the peace negotiation, Averell Harriman, was never invited to the Tuesday Lunches briefings, where updates about the situation used to be made! Moreover, the Johnson administration regarded bombings as its biggest bargaining chip, a basis upon which all its negotiations were to proceed. A lack of coordination and understanding between these two vital organs was one of the prime reasons for the failu re of whichever peace missions the president undertook. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 151) Neither his offensives, nor the peace moves he made later when left with no other choice was done in the right spirit. As a result, the president’s handling of the Vietnam War was to dwarf the stature of one of America’s tallest presidents. References Best, A., Hanhimà ¤ki, J. M., Maiolo, J. A., Schulze, K. E., (2004), International History of the Twentieth Century, Routledge, London. Brigham, R. K., (1998), Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLFs Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Brown-Collier, E. K., (1998), Johnsons Great Society: Its Legacy in the 1990s. Review of Social Economy, Vol. 56, No.3, p. 259+. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from Questia database. Dallek, R., (1998), Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961-1973, Oxford University Press, New York. Dallek, R., (2004), Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President, Oxford University Press, New York. Gelb, L. H., Betts, R. K., (1979), The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC. Isserman, M., Kazin, M., (2000), America Divided The Civil War of the 1960s, Oxford University Press, New York. Jacobsen, M., (1996), 13 President Johnson and the Decision To Curtail Rolling Thunder. In The Tet Offensive, Gilbert, M. J. Head, W. (Eds.) (pp. 215-227), Praeger, Westport, CT. Liebovich, L. W., (1998), The Press and the Modern Presidency: Myths and Mindsets from Kennedy to Clinton, Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. Miller, J. E., (1999), 5 Ambivalent about America: Giorgio la Pira and the Catholic Left in Italy from NATO Ratification to the Vietnam War. In The United States and the European Alliance Since 1945 /, Burk, K. Stokes, M. (Eds.) (pp. 127-144), Berg, New York. Parker, F. C., (1989), Vietnam: Strategy for a Stalemate (1st ed.), Paragon Press, New York. Reiter, D., Stam, A. C., (2002), Democracies at War, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Vandiver, F. E., (1997), Shadows of Vietnam: Lyndon Johnsons Wars (1st ed.), Texas AM University Press, College Station, TX. Wiest, A., (2003), The Vietnam War, 1956-1975, Routledge, New York.

Sartres Philosophy Essays -- Philosophy Sartre Essays Papers

Sartre's Philosophy Sartre believed that one day man happened, or occurred, and after this anomalous event man’s life took meaning. With this theory, Sartre articulated the premise that â€Å"existence precedes essence†. Through this assumption, Sartre evolves further ideas in which a human can gain a greater understanding of human nature and responsibility.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his theory stating that â€Å"existence precedes essence†, Sartre takes the belief that life has a meaning that far transcends our short and insignificant lives. He believed that life has no meaning unless we gave it meaning. In the search for life, we become anguished by the affairs of life. Sartre believed that when this occurred, we pursue a fundamental project in an attempt to flee this anguish. Sartre said that in this, we try to make ourselves Gods in hopes that others will see us as divine, and hold us in high or higher regard. To pursue a fundamental project according to Sartre is to act in bad faith. Consequently, to act in bad faith, according to Sartre is to manifest our freedom inauthenticaly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sartre assessed how when man acknowledges and accepts that he is a living being with a biological and social past. He can transcend beyond that to nothingness, the realm of the etre pour soi (the â€Å"being-for-itself†). At this point he is, according to Sartre, clearheaded and in good faith. Because he is acting in good faith, he is not pursuing a fundamental project in an attempt to ci...

Awakening Vs. Greenleaf :: essays research papers

A strong critique by existentialist writers of modern society is the way in which humans live unexamined, meaningless lives with no true concept of what it is to be an unique individuals. In Kate Chopin’s novel The Awakening and in Flannery O’Connor’s short story â€Å"Greenleaf† the characters Edna and Mrs. May, respectively, begin almost as common, stock characters living unfulfilled lives. They eventually converge, however, upon an elevated life and death filled with new meaning through their struggle with their role as individuals surrounded by other important beings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1948) believed that humankind follows a certain evolution of mind and body. This process involves a beginning (komogenese), a development (biogenese), and then a peak (noogenese) in which humans reach an Omega Point of higher being. Though his ideas were actually applied on a much broader scale of humanity over a large timespan, the theory can be applied to the individual’s process of human development. Single humans begin as common clones of one another. From this commonality many examine their lives and develop the things within them that make them uniquely them. This development of the self only can be ended at death when the individual converges upon an Omega Point in which he has an elevated understanding of and meaning for life. The characters Edna from The Awakening and Mrs. May from †Greenleaf† encounter a similar human development in which an individual is formed with an understanding of life. The means by which they achieve this differ greatly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the novel The Awakening opens, the reader sees Edna Pontellier as one who might seem to be a happy married woman living a secure, fulfilled life. It is quickly revealed, though, that she is deeply oppressed by a male dominated society, evident through her marriage to Leonce. Edna lives a controlled life in which there is no outlet for her to develop herself as the individual who she is. Her marriage to Leonce was more an act of rebellion from her parents than an act of love for Leonce. She cares for him and is fond of him, but had no real love for him. Edna’s inability to awaken the person inside her is also shown through her role as a â€Å"mother-woman†. She loves and cares for her children a great deal, but does not fit into the Creole mother-society in which other women baby and over protect their children.

Development of personality Essay

When studying human behavior, specifically focusing on the development of personality and crucial to how a person or individual conducts him/herself, psychology offers a variety of dimensions. The concept of personality is central to the attempt to understand oneself and others and is part of the way in which it accounts for the differences that contribute to people’s individuality. Psychologists have been particularly concerned with shaping of the personality in relation to genetic and environmental influences. People have been fortunate that the study of human personality has been thriving and fruitful. Individuals can choose from as many models they can to help them see themselves better and maintain good relationships. Personality is more than poise, charm, or physical appearance. It includes habits, attitudes, and all the physical, emotional, social, religious and moral aspects that a person possesses. However, to be more precise, the explicit behavioral styles covered in the course, perhaps, best captivate an individual’s personality and how he/she is understood. With the different behavioral styles, an overall pattern of various characteristics is seen. Like a â€Å"psychograph,† a person’s profile is pulled together and at a glance, the individual can be compared with other people in terms of relative strengths and weaknesses (Corey 2005). Personality is defined as integrated general characteristics of the individual’s total behavior and his or her unique adjustment in the environment. Personality theory is a set of assumptions concerning human behavior together with rules for relating these assumptions and definitions to permit their interaction with empirical or observable events. Personality psychology is a scientific study of mental functioning concerning internal drives, inner motive, repressed feelings, thoughts, and conflicts as the nature of personality (Feist and Feist, 2006). Behavior is described and analyzed. On this basis, an attempt to predict behavior is possible, and although this may not thoroughly and completely be accomplished in some endeavors, the basic understanding then is that there are certain expectations concerning how any person would act or decide upon things that are within his conscious awareness. Psychology is of great importance to man since psychological problems are common to group relations, in whatever framework a person or group of individuals come from. The goals of treatment for instance, using the psychodynamic model, include alleviating patient of the symptoms which specifically works to uncover and work through unconscious conflict. The task of psychodynamic therapy is â€Å"to make the unconscious conscious to the patient† (â€Å"Models of abnormality†, National Extension College Trust, Ltd). Employing the psychodynamic viewpoint, the therapist or social scientist believes that emotional conflicts, or neurosis, and/or disturbances in the mind are caused by unresolved conflicts which originated during childhood years. The treatment modality frequently used includes dreams and free association, at times hypnosis (as preferred by either the therapist or by the client). In the integrated or eclectic approach the goal of the therapy is not just relief to the patient or client. Although an immediate relief is very helpful, this may not always be the case in most illnesses. The goal as mentioned is to provide long-term reduction of the symptoms and the occurrence of the disease altogether if possible. The management then is not impossible but neither is this easy. Specifically, the counselee or patient must want to heal or believe that there is going to be curative effects in the process. It presupposes that he/she must learn to trust the therapist in his/her capabilities as well in leading or facilitating the changes or modifications. It is very much essential that (in the perspective of a cognitive-behaviorist) that the client understands ownership to the deeds and choices in thought patterns he/she made are crucial to the recurring or occurring condition that s/he experiences (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). Moreover, the identification of specific treatments or interventions according to the diagnosed issue will be accommodated and implemented based on the chosen treatment modalities fit with the therapeutic approach utilized. It may be a single modality based on a single approach (e. g. learning principles and desensitization for a patient with specific phobias) or it maybe a combination of many modalities (CBT, Rogerian, Phenomenological, or Family systems) (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). ~Promoting therapy Psychotherapists believe that therapy contributes a lot to the improvement of the psychological condition of the client (Snyder, 1994). Therapy can come in many varied forms and the use of these or any of these has been proven to be of vital significance to clients from various walks of life and with myriads of problems or mental and emotional challenges. Therapy may be long-termed analytical experiences or encounters or brief problem-oriented treatment/intervention. Whatever the case, these consultations and in-depth interactions and activities between a practitioner therapist and the client in most cases, are beneficial (Mutha, 2002). It is therefore wrong to argue that with or without treatment patients recover or improve because subtle issues are overlooked with this statement or findings. Firstly, studies were done with findings that were more correlational rather than experimental (Mutha, 2002). Secondly, the element of catharsis is a powerful ingredient or element of the healing process and many of those without seeking professional help happened to be with a support group whose experiences were years of gaining knowledge and skills from the experts and experienced counselors (Mutha, 2002). It is true that there have been substantial evidences as well that improvement with cases have occurred; these are usually attributed the aforementioned reasons. Specifically, psychotherapy enables a client or patient to help ease his anxiety, managing his fears from the mundane or petty to the horrific. Quality of life, wellness and recovery are primary goals aside from the usual notion that psychotherapy is just a crutch for someone who may not actually have a real psychological problem (Snyder et al, 2000). This last phrase is true for some people who needed more than the advice or the listening ear; precisely, they needed a human ace who is intent on knowing and understanding them. Personality cognitive theories are concerned with constructive alternativism with which the alternative scientific constructs may provide a useful view of the world. George Kelly’s the Psychology or Personal Construct Social cognitive theories explain personality as a reciprocal interaction among behavior involving observation, cognition including self-efficacy, and environment making a chance encounter and fortuitous events (Feist and Feist, 2006). Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive theory Cognitive social learning theories describe behavior as a function of the expectation of reinforcements and strength of needs satisfied by those reinforcements. Behavior is shaped by the interactions of person variables such as competencies, encoding, strategies, expectancies, values and goals, and the self-regulatory system with situation variables (Feist and Feist, 2006). Behavioral Model The Behavioral model utilizes what is termed as the learning theory posited by Skinner and Watson and the rest of the Behaviorism school. It assumes that the principles in learning i. e. , conditioning (Associative and Operant) are effective means to effect change in an individual. Generally, the thrust of this theoretical perspective is focused on the symptoms that a person is experiencing. Just as many of the errors of the patterns of behavior come from learning from the environment, it is also assumed that an individual will be able to unlearn some if not all these by using the techniques as applied based on the learning principles. To a certain extent this still works: reinforcements are effective to some extent and in some or many people this stance can be separate or distinct from the Cognitive-Behavioral approach. In behavior therapy therefore, thoughts, feelings and all those â€Å"malfunctioning† and unwanted manifestations revealed in one’s activities can be unlearned and the work of a behavior therapist. The basic concepts include â€Å"extinguishing† – utilized when maladaptive patterns are then weakened and removed and in their place habits that are healthy are established (developed and strengthened) in a series or progressive approach called â€Å"successive approximations. When these (factors) are reinforced such as through rewards in intrinsic and extrinsic means, the potential of a more secure and steady change in behavior is developed and firmly established (Corey, 2005). Although few psychologists today would regard themselves as strict behaviorists, behaviorism has been very influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. There are different emphases within this discipline though. Some behaviorists contend plainly that the observation of behavior is the best or most expedient method of exploring psychological and cognitive processes. Others consider that it is in reality the only way of examining such processes, while still others argue that behavior itself is the only appropriate subject of psychology, and that familiar psychological terms such as belief only refer to behavior. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive approach grew out of this movement. Bandura’s method emphasizes cognitive processes over and above observable behavior, concentrating on not only the influence of the person’s upbringing for example, but also â€Å"observation, imitation, and thought processes† (Corey, 2005). Cognitive-Behavioral Model Beck’s Cognitive Therapy The Beck’s Cognitive therapy is one of the most popular and widely studied therapies in the market today and countless times proven the effectiveness of the treatment style or the kind of interventions that had been favored by the doctors. Its stance boils down to appreciating the effects of biology, emotions and environment on the individual and pursues changes in those levels (Padesky and Mooney, 1990). There are various adaptations or revisions of the strategy today and remains to be top of the list in mental institutions all over the world. In the cognitive approach alone, it understands that an individual at varying times in his life has error-filled thinking patterns. These patterns may include wishful thinking, unrealistic expectations, constant reliving and living in the past or even beyond the present and into the future, and overgeneralizing. These habits lead to confusion, frustration and eventual constant disappointment. This therapeutic approach stresses or accentuates the rational or logical and positive worldview: a viewpoint that takes into consideration that we are problem-solvers, have options in life and not that we are always left with no choice as many people think. It also looks into the fact that because we do have options then there are many things that await someone who have had bad choices in the past, and therefore can look positively into the future. Cognitive-Behavioral approach â€Å"facilitates a collaborative relationship between the patient and therapist† (Ellis & Beck in Corey, 2004). For the Cognitive Behaviorist viewpoint, issues are dealt directly in a practical way. Here the client is enlightened as to the patterns of his thinking and the errors of these thoughts which bore fruit in his attitudes and behavior. His/her thoughts and beliefs have connections on his/her behavior and must therefore be â€Å"reorganized. † For instance, the ways that a client looks at an issue of his/her life will direct the path of his reactivity to the issue. When corrected at this level, the behavior follows automatically (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). The systems theory portion of the therapy indicates that whatever is occurring or happening is not isolated but is a working part of a bigger context. In the family systems approach then, no individual person can be understood when removed from his relationships whether in the present or past, and this is specially focused on the family he belongs to (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy postulated primarily by Ellis and Beck â€Å"facilitates a collaborative relationship between the patient and therapist. With the idea that the counselor and patient together cooperate to attain a trusting relationship and agree which problems or issues need to come first in the course of the therapy. For the Cognitive Behaviorist Therapist, the immediate and presenting problem that the client is suffering and complaining from takes precedence and must be addressed and focused in the treatment. There is instantaneous relief from the symptoms, and may be encouraged or spurred on to pursue in-depth treatment and reduction of the ailments where possible. The relief from the symptoms from the primary problem or issue will inspire the client to imagine or think that change is not impossible after all. In this model, issues are dealt directly in a practical way. In the cognitive approach alone, the therapist understands that a client or patient comes into the healing relationship and the former’s role is to change or modify the latter’s maladjusted or error-filled thinking patterns. These patterns may include wishful thinking, unrealistic expectations, constant reliving and living in the past or even beyond the present and into the future, and overgeneralizing. These habits lead to confusion, frustration and eventual constant disappointment. This therapeutic approach stresses or accentuates the rational or logical and positive worldview: a viewpoint that takes into consideration that we are problem-solvers, have options in life and not that we are always left with no choice as many people think. It also looks into the fact that because we do have options then there are many things that await someone who have had bad choices in the past, and therefore can look positively into the future. Just as the cognitive-behavioral model also recognizes the concept of insight as well, this is only a matter of emphasis or focus. In behavioral/cognitive-behavioral therapies the focus is on the modification or control of behavior and insight usually becomes a tangential advantage. Techniques include CBT through such strategy as cognitive restructuring and the current frequently used REBT for Rational Emotive-Behavior Therapy where irrational beliefs are eliminated by examining them in a rational manner (Corey, 2004; Davison and Neale, 2001). Whereas in insight therapies the focus or emphasis is on the patient’s ability in understanding his/her issues basing on his inner conflicts, motives and fears. In the cognitive approach alone, the therapist understands that a client or patient comes into the healing relationship and the former’s role is to change or modify the latter’s maladjusted or error-filled thinking patterns. These patterns may include wishful thinking, unrealistic expectations, constant reliving and living in the past or even beyond the present and into the future, and overgeneralizing. These habits lead to confusion, frustration and eventual constant disappointment. This therapeutic approach stresses or accentuates the rational or logical and positive worldview: a viewpoint that takes into consideration that we are problem-solvers, have options in life and not that we are always left with no choice as many people think. It also looks into the fact that because we do have options then there are many things that await someone who have had bad choices in the past, and therefore can look positively into the future (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). Coaching the patient on the step by step procedure of CBT is a basic and fundamental ingredient. Here the client is enlightened as to the patterns of his thinking and the errors of these thoughts which bore fruit in his attitudes and behavior. His/her thoughts and beliefs have connections on his/her behavior and must therefore be â€Å"reorganized. † For instance, the ways that a client looks at an issue of his/her life will direct the path of his reactivity to the issue. When corrected at this level, the behavior follows automatically (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004).